Map 13

Map of the borders of the Promised Land that God
showed to Moses on Mt. Nebo, described in Deut. 34:1-3
© 2017 Dr. David E. Graves, ECM

Map representing the outside borders of the Promised Land that God showed to Moses on Mount Nebo, described in Deuteronomy 34:1-3. It is unlikely that es-Safi (Byzantine Zoar) is the location of the eastern boundary of the Promised Land, as it would lay in Moabite territory, south of the Arnon River. It is more likely that Serâbît el-Mushaqqar, located on the ascent to Mount Nebo, or another site nearby, was the OT Zoar and represents the eastern boundary of the Promised Land.

Moses’ panorama of the wasteland of the kikkār (Num 21:20, 22:1) and the Promised Land begins at Mt. Pisgah, near Mt. Nebo in Moab, east of Jericho.[1]  Then, facing the Mediterranean Sea, Moses begins on his right with (1) Gilead (east of the Jordan. See the numbers on the Map above) traveling north as far as (2) the city of Dan (N boundary, not to be confused with the tribe of Dan), where the Transjordan ends, then traveling from north to south along the Mediterranean Sea (W boundary)  ((3) Naphtali, (4) Manasseh,  (5) Ephraim, and  (6) Judah). Then in the south, the border is mentioned at  (7) the Negev (S boundary), followed by  (8) the kikkār, which he identified as the Valley of Jericho. This places the kikkār in the disk, north of the Dead Sea, connected with Jericho. Then having mentioned the northern ( (2) Dan), western ( (3) (4) (5) (6) Mediterranean), and southern ((7) Negev) borders, he identifies (9) Zoar as the Eastern boundary. Moses would have passed by the site of Serâbît el-Mushaqqar (OT Zoar?) on his climb up Mt. Nebo to view the Promised Land.

Power concludes that:

It is impossible to avoid the conclusion that Ṣo’ar is at the foot of Mount Nebo, where the vision began, and at the eastern limit of the Round of the valley of Jericho, where it ended.[2]

Howard argues the same:

Since this scene begins with the most remote part of the kikkār it must end at the nearest, which places Zoar near the foot of Mount Nebo.[3]  Furthermore, the point is often made that the Byzantine-Arabic site of Zoar and the southern end of the Dead Sea are not visible from the Mount Nebo vicinity, the view being obstructed by the mountains of Moab.[4]

Driver point out that “v. 3 implies naturally that Zoar was at some distance off, not a place at the foot of Nebo.”[5]  Although if Zoar is at es-Safi, as the SST advocates propose,[6]  then the eastern border of the Promised Land is located in Moabite territory, south of the Arnon River, which never happened, as Reuben was north of the Arnon River. The Negev has already been identified as the southern boundary, so Zoar is not likely the southern boundary, but the eastern boundary. This passage would seem to favour the NST and place Zoar someplace near Mt. Nebo (See Fact 33).[7]

[1] Joel F. Drinkard Jr., “ʿAL PÉNÊ as ‘East of,’” Journal of Biblical Literature 98 (1978): 285–86
[2] E. Power, “The Site of the Pentapolis: Part 1,” Biblica 11 (1930): 42..
[3] Jan Jozef Simons, The Geographical and Topographical Texts of the Old Testament: A Concise Commentary in Xxxii Chapters (Leiden: Brill, 1959), 406.
[4] David M. Howard, Jr., “Sodom and Gomorrah Revisited,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27, no. 4 (1984), 390. Driver observes that there are many other locations mentioned here that were not visible from Mt. Nebo, including: Northern Gilead, Dan and, the Mediterranean Sea. Samuel R. Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy, ICC 5 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1978), 419–21; Samuel R. Driver, “Zoar,” in A Dictionary of the Bible: Dealing with Its Language, Literature and Contents Including the Biblical Theology. 5 vols. ed. James Hastings and John A. Selbie, vol. 4 (New York, N.Y.: Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 4:986.
[5] Ibid, 4:986.
[6] Konstantinos D. Politis, “Death at the Dead Sea,” Biblical Archaeology Review 38, no. 2 (2013): 42
[7] Howard argues for a southern location from this passage, based on a chiastic reading of the text but this chiastic layout seems unnatural and forced on the text which is otherwise a natural reading of a geographic map. Howard, Jr., “Sodom and Gomorrah Revisited,” 391-92.

© 2017 Dr. David E. Graves, Electronic Christian Media

Chart 14

PROPOSED DATING FOR THE PATRIARCHS

 

 Footnotes

1. Adapted from J. Randall Price, The Stones Cry Out: What Archaeology Reveals About the Truth of the Bible (Eugene, Oreg.: Harvest House, 1997), 106. Also, see Chart 2 for different dates for the archaeological periods used by various scholars.
2. Freedman states, “If Abraham and Lot had anything to do with the Cities of the Plain, then that link could only have existed in the Early Bronze Age, certainly not in the Middle Bronze Age.” Freedman, “The Real Story of the Ebla Tablets,” 157; Shanks, “BAR Interviews Giovanni Pettinato,” 47; Albright, “The Jordan Valley in the Bronze Age,” 58–61. Pettinato replied to Freedman’s dating the Patriarchal Age to the third millennium as “impossible.” 
3. Willem C. van Hattem, “Once Again: Sodom and Gomorrah,” Biblical Archaeologist 44, no. 2 (Spring 1981): 90.
4. Kenyon identifies the patriarchs with a Canaanite migration and “invasion of Palestine by nomad tribes of Amorites.” Kathleen M. Kenyon, “Excavations in Jerusalem, 1965,” Palestine Exploration Quarterly 98, no. 1 (1966): 75; Amorites and Canaanites, Schweich Lectures on Biblical Archaeology (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1967), 76; Paul W. Lapp, The Dhahr Mirzbaneh Tombs: Three Intermediate Bronze Age Cemeteries in Jordan (Philadelphia, Pa.: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1966), 114.
5. Wood claims that the date for the destruction of Sodom is ca. 2070 BC based on a 1446 BC date for the Exodus. The date of the destruction of Bab edh-Dhra according to Rast and Schaub is 2350 BC. Bryant G. Wood, “The Discovery of the Sin Cities of Sodom and Gomorrah,” Bible and Spade 12, no. 3 (1999):  78; Bryant G. Wood, “Locating Sodom: A Critique of the Northern Proposal,” Bible and Spade 20, no. 3 (2007): 81.
6. John H. Walton, Chronological and Background Charts of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1994), 15; Price, The Stones Cry Out, 92.
7. Ed Hindson and Elmer L. Towns, Illustrated Bible Survey: An Introduction (Nashville, Tenn.: B&H, 2013), 36.
8. John J. Bimson, “Archaeological Data and the Dating of the Patriarchs,” in Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives, ed. Alan R. Millard and Donald J. Wiseman (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1980), 84–85.
9. Price identifies MB 1 from 2100-1900 BC and MB 2A from 1900-1700 BC. Price, The Stones Cry Out, 350.
10. Nelson Glueck, Rivers in the Desert: A History of the Negev (New York, N.Y.: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1959), 61–84; The Other Side of the Jordan, 15–16.
11. Eugene H. Merrill, Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2008). 47–48, 83–96; Eugene H. Merrill, “Texts, Talls, and Old Testament Chronology: Tall El-Hammam as a Case Study,” Artifax 27, no. 4 (2012): 20–21.
12. Kenneth A. Kitchen and T. C. Mitchell, “Chronology of the Old Testament,” ed. I. Howard Marshall et al., New Bible Dictionary (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1996), 190; Alan R. Millard, “Methods of Studying the Patriarchal Narratives as Ancient Texts,” in Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives, ed. Donald J. Wiseman and Alan R. Millard (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 43–58.
13. Albright states on the basis of the evidence at Bab edh-Dhra that “it does suggest very strongly that the date of Abraham cannot be placed earlier than the nineteenth century BC” (1900 to 1801 BC). Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine and the Bible, 10; “A Revision of Early Hebrew Chronology,” Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society 1 (1921): 68, 79; Glueck, Rivers in the Desert, 61–84; The Other Side of the Jordan, 15–16; Samuel J. Schultz and Gary V. Smith, Exploring the Old Testament (Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway, 2001), 209; Wright, Biblical Archaeology, 50; Hoffmeier, The Archaeology of the Bible: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions, 68. Hoffmeier narrows the date to 1800-1540 in his Israel in Egypt book.
14. Collins has a slightly narrower date of 1950–1550 in his response to Bryant Wood. Collins, “A Response to Bryant G. Wood,” 27; “Sodom: The Discovery of a Lost City,” BS 20, no. 3 (2007): 72.
15. Free and Vos, Archaeology and Bible History, 64; Hoerth and McRay, Bible Archaeology, 101.
16. Archer identifies these dates as the Middle Bronze Age. Gleason L. Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, Rev Upd (Chicago, Ill.: Moody, 1996), 184.
17. Bruce K. Waltke and Cathi J. Fredricks, Genesis: A Commentary (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2001), 30; Goldingay, “The Patriarchs in Scripture and History,” 11; William Sanford La Sor et al., Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1996), 38–43.
18. Bill T. Arnold, Encountering the Book of Genesis (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 2003), 86.
19. Geisler and Holden base part of their arguments on the Excavations at Tall el-Ḥammâm. Geisler and Holden, Popular Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible, 191.
20. Nahum M Sarna, “The Patriarchs Genesis 12-36,” in Genesis: World of Myths and Patriarchs, ed. Ada Feyerick, Cyrus Herzl Gordon, and Nahum M Sarna (New York, N.Y.: New York University Press, 1996), 118.
21. Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 1:225–226; Amihai Mazar, “The Patriarchs, Exodus and Conquest Narratives in Light of Archaeology,” in The Quest for the Historical Israel, ed. Israel Finkelstein and Brian B. Schmidt, Archaeology and Biblical Studies 17 (Atlanta, Ga.: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007), 59.
22. Cyrus H. Gordon, “The Patriarchal Narratives,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 13 (1954): 56–59; Introduction to Old Testament Times (Ventnor, N.J.: Ventnor, 1953), chapter 8; “Biblical Customs and the Nuzu Tablets,” 1–12; “The New Amarna Tablets,” Orientalia 16 (1947): 1–21; “Hebrew Origins in the Light of Recent Discovery,” in Biblical and Other Studies, ed. Alexander Altmann (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963), 5–6.
23. Benjamin Mazar, The World History of the Jewish People: Ancient Times: Patriarchs, vol. 2 (London, U.K.: Rutger’s University Press, 1970), 169–87, 276–78; Aharoni, The Land of the Bible, 133–90; Ze’ev Herzog, “Deconstructing the Walls of Jericho,” Ha’aretz Magazine, 1999, 4–5.
24. Thomas L. Thompson, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 2002), 89; John Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1975); S. M. Warner, “The Patriarchs and Extra-Biblical Sources,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 2 (1977): 50–61.

Bonus 89 - Arch of Titus

Relief on the arch of Titus, Rome depicting the removal of the menorah, table of the presence
and silver trumpets from the temple in Jerusalem
following its destruction in 70 AD by the Romans

Arch of Titus, Rome

A part of the Via Appia, which is now called the Via Sacra
(Lat. meaning Sacred Way or Road) in the Roman Forum
which began at Capitoline Hill. It was the main street of ancient Rome.
It passes through the Roman Forum, leaving it just after the
Arch of Titus, which is visible in the distance

Vespasian came from Rome in AD 66 to suppress a Jewish revolt. His son Titus took over the campaign and using four legions captured Jerusalem in AD 70 and following the fall of the Masada fortress in AD 73 the revolt was finally over.

The honourific Arch of Titus (first cent.) located at the highest point on the Via Sacra in Rome, was constructed by his younger brother Domitian in AD 81 in commemoration of Titus’ victories, including the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD.1.  This 15m high arch is the oldest surviving example of a Roman arch. This arch has provided the inspiration for many famous arches since the 16th cent. including the famous Arc de Triomphe in Paris, France. 2.

The inside of the arch contains two impressive panels with reliefs. The first depicts Titus riding in a chariot accompanied by the Goddess Victoria and the Goddess Roma. The southern relief depicts the Roman’s procession carrying the spoils plundered from the Second Temple in Jerusalem. The menorah is portrayed as it was in the Temple in the first cent. Also displayed in relief are the two silver trumpets (which the Israelites called Israel and Jericho) and the table of the presence. These objects were originally gilded with gold, with a blue background. There was a Latin inscription in bronze which read

“The Roman Senate and People to Deified Titus, Vespasian Augustus, son of Deified Vespasian.” 3.

In the 11th cent. the arch was integrated into a fortress but in 1821 restored by Giuseppe Valadier.

Footnotes

• 1. William Knight, The Arch of Titus and the Spoils of the Temple, an Historical Lecture (Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2010), 100.
• 2. Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: Backpack Edition, Book 1, vol. 1, 13th ed. (Cengage Learning, 2009), 182–83.
• 3. Paul Artus, Art and Architecture of the Roman Empire (Bellona Books, 2006), 45–48.

This bonus material was quoted from:

David E. Graves, Key Themes of the Old Testament: A Survey of Major Theological Themes (Moncton, N.B.: Graves, 2013), 263-64.

Bonus 14 - Mari Tablets

Tablet of Zimri-Lim, king of Mari, concerning the foundation of an ice-house in Terqa. Baked clay, ca. 1780 BC.Department of Oriental Antiquities, Richelieu, ground floor, room 3 Jastrow (2005) Public Domain

The Mari tablets (1796–1761 BC ) were written primarily in the Akkadian language (Semitic dialect) although a few were bilingual, also written in Hurrian and Sumerian.  The tablets were primarily from the second millennium (1800–1750 BC) and contained treaty documents between Iasmah-Adad and Zimri-Lim as well as between Zimri-Lim and Hammurabi.1.  While the text dealt largely with financial, administrative and business transactions, they mention personal and place names with striking parallels to the Patriarchal records in Genesis. The customs, practices and names reflected in the Mari texts also illustrate practices during Patriarchal times that are similar to those mentioned by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For example, treaties and covenants were ratified by the killing of an ass, as described in the pact between the Shechemites and Jacob (Gen 33:19; 34:1–3). Yahweh’s name appears in the tables but while not likely worshiped at Mari appears to be known among the Yawi names like the OT name Yawi-El (Joel). The practice of the ban or Hêrem placed on life and property of conquests, that was proclaimed at Jericho (Josh 6), is also described in the Mari tablets as the asakkum. Among the similarities both accounts describe severe penalties for violating the ban.2.

Footnotes
1. Jean-Marie Durand, “Mari (Texts),” ed. David Noel Freedman et al., trans. Jennifer L. Davis, Anchor Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1996), 4:533.
2. Abraham Malamat, “The Ban in Mari and in the Bible,” in Biblical Essays, Proceedings of the Ninth Meeting of Die Ou-Testamentiese Werkgemeenskap in Suid-Afrika (Potchefstroom, South Africa: Society for the Study of the Old Testament, 1967), 40–49.

This bonus information was quoted from:

David E. Graves, Key Themes of the Old Testament: A Survey of Major Theological Themes (Moncton, N.B.: Graves, 2013), 220-21.

Bonus 12 - Sumerian King List

Sumerian King List or Weld-Blundell prism
Courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford

The Sumerian king’s list as it exists today is a critical reconstruction of 20 fragments with one nearly complete copy of the Sumerian king’s list published in 1939 by the renowned Danish, Sumerologist Thorkild Jacobson.1.  The first fragment was discovered in the temple library at Nippur, Iraq, in 1922. The Weld-Blundell prism was purchased on the antiquities market shortly after World War I. Today the original is displayed in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. A copy is on display in the Uruk Exhibit, Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

This ancient Mesopotamian genealogy dates to ca. 2100–1800 BC and is the oldest (one hundred years before Abraham) known outline of world history. It is a list of ten kings of the land once known as Sumer from before the flood with extremely long reigns. This list was inscribed during the reign of Damiqilishu of Isin (1816–1794 BC) only a few years before Hammurabi of Babylon captured the land in the first half of the 18th cent. BC and added it as a province to his new Babylonian empire.2.  The list recounts:

After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridug. In Eridug, Alulim became king; he ruled for 28800 years. Alaljar ruled for 36000 years. 2 kings; they ruled for 64800 years. . . Then the flood swept over. After the flood had swept over, and the kingship had descended from heaven, the kingship was in Kic. In Kic, Jucur became king; he ruled for 1200 years. Kullassina-bel ruled for 960 years. Nanjiclicma ruled for 670 years. En-tarah-ana ruled for 420 years . . . , 3 months, and 3 1/2 days. Babum . . . . ruled for 300 years. Puannum ruled for 840 years. Kalibum ruled for 960 years.3.

Prior to the flood, ten Sumerian kings ruled with superhuman lengths of reign (total 241,000 years). Following the flood the rule of the Sumerian kings is greatly reduced (under 1000 years). While the superhuman lengths can be explained by the Sumerian’s sexagesimal 4. (base 60) 5.  number system, 6. the “long-flood-short” pattern follows a sigmoid curve that is identical to the biblical pattern. 

There is justifiable skepticism over the unreasonably long lifespans for not only the Sumerian kings, but also the biblical patriarchs. Carol A. Hill observes that:

All age-numbers (30 in all) from Adam to Noah are a combination of the sacred numbers 60 (years and months) and 7. No numbers end in 1, 3, 4, 6, or 8—a chance probability of one in a billion. Thirteen numbers end in 0 (some multiple or combination of 60), 8 numbers end in 5 (5 years = 60 months), 3 numbers end in 7, 5 numbers end in 2 (5yrs + 7 yrs = 12), and 1 number ends in 9 (5yrs + 7yrs + 7yrs = 19). All of this cannot be coincidental. The Mesopotamians were using sacred numbers, not real numbers. Therefore, these numbers were not meant to be (and should not be) interpreted as real numbers. 7.

Those who do not take the numbers literally as Greco-Roman hard numbers, see them as a Semitic convention that represents an honorific representation. 8.  In the ancient Near East numbers were often used to portray importance or status with the gods. Walton has demonstrated that when the ages of the individuals in Genesis are converted to the sexagesimal system “we get 241,200, the exact total of the Sumerian King List.” 9.

The genealogies were selective to convey a specific theme; the same as in the NT’s Gospel of Matthew, chapter 1. The names were not meant to calculate the genealogies or the age of the earth, as Bishop Ussher did (dating Creation and Adam to 4004 BC). 10.  It is clear from archaeological remains that Jericho and other cities were inhabited as far back as 9000 BC. 11.

This demonstrates that there was a common historical source available for both the author of the Bible and the Sumerian accounts.

Footnotes

• 1. Thorkild Jacobsen, The Sumerian King List (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1939).
• 2. Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, and Andrew Lintott, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 10 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 200–20.
• 3.  The ETCSL project, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford (2006), n.p.
• 4.  Carol A. Hill, “Making Sense of the Numbers of Genesis.” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 55, no. 4 (2003):  241; Jöran Friberg, “Numbers and Measures in the Earliest Written Records,” Scientific American 250, no. 2 (1984): 117.
• 5. “When the kingdom durations of the antediluvian section are expressed in an early sexagesimal numerical system, all durations except two are expressed as multiples of 602. A simple tally of the ciphers used yields six 10 x 602 signs, six 602 signs and six 60 signs.” Raúl Erlando López, “The Antediluvian Patriarchs and the Sumerian King List,” Journal of Creation 12, no. 3 (1998): 347.
• 6. Graham Flegg, Numbers: Their History and Meaning (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 2002), 55.
• 7.  Hill, “Making Sense of the Numbers of Genesis.” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 55, no. 4 (2003): 245.
• 8. David M. Fouts, “A Defense of the Hyperbolic Interpretation of Large Numbers in the Old Testament.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40 (1997): 377–87; Hill, “Making Sense of the Numbers of Genesis,” 239–51.
• 9. Walton does not include Adam and Noah in the calculation because their equivalents are not included in the Sumerian King List. John H Walton, Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 2nd ed., Library of Biblical Interpretation (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1990), 129; “The Antediluvian Section of the Sumerian King List and Genesis 5,” The Biblical Archaeologist 44, no. 4 (October 1, 1981): 207–208.
• 10. James Barr, “Why the World Was Created in 4004 BC: Archbishop Ussher and Biblical Chronology,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 67 (85 1984): 575–608.
• 11. Charles Gates, Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece, and Rome, 1st ed. (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2003), 18.

Key Themes of the OT

A portion of this bonus information was quoted from:

David E. Graves, Key Themes of the Old Testament: A Survey of Major Theological Themes (Moncton, N.B.: Graves, 2013), 184-85.








For Further Study 

• Barr, James. “Why the World Was Created in 4004 BC: Archbishop Ussher and Biblical Chronology,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 67 (85 1984): 575–608.
• Chavalas, Mark W. ed. “Sumerian King List,” translated by Piotr Michalowski, in The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation, Malden, Ma.: Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
• Fouts, David M. “A Defense of the Hyperbolic Interpretation of Large Numbers in the Old Testament.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40 (1997): 377–87.
• Friberg, Jöran. “The Beginning and End of the Sumerian King List” in A Remarkable Collection of Babylonian Mathematical Texts: Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection Cuneiform Texts I, Springer, 2007.
• Friberg, Jöran. “Numbers and Counting.” Edited by David Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion, David F. Graf, and John David Pleins. Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1996.
• Friberg, Jöran. “Numbers and Measures in the Earliest Written Records.” Scientific American 250, no. 2 (1984): 110–18.
• Hill, Carol A. “Making Sense of the Numbers of Genesis.” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 55, no. 4 (2003): 239–51.
• Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Sumerian King List. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1939.
• López, Raul Erlando “The antediluvian patriarchs and the Sumerian king list,” Journal of Creation 12 no. 3 (1998): 347-357.
• Michalowski, Piotr. “History as Charter Some Observations on the Sumerian King List.”
  Journal of the American Oriental Society 103 no. 1 (1983): 237–248.
• Rowton, M. B. “The Date of the Sumerian King List.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 19 no. 2 (1960): 156–162.
• Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts. 2nd ed. Library of Biblical Interpretation. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1990.
• Walton, John H. “The Antediluvian Section of the Sumerian King List and Genesis 5.” The Biblical Archaeologist 44, no. 4 (October 1, 1981): 207–8.
• Young, Dwight W.  “The Incredible Regnal Spans of Kish I in the Sumerian King List,
  Journal of Near Eastern Studies 50 no. 1 (1991): 23–35.
   

Figure 60

Grain storage jars, Jericho. © 2014 Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com

Grain storage jars are still visible here in one of Kenyon’s baulks in Jericho (© 2014 Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com).

The destruction occurred at harvest time, in the spring (month of Adar, i.e., February/March), as indicated by the large quantities of grain stored in the city (Josh 2:6; 3:15; 5:10). Both Garstang and Kenyon found several grain filled storage jars that were burned. Kenyon reported over six bushels of grain excavated in one season alone.  The siege of Jericho was short, as the grain stored in the city was not consumed (Josh 6:1, 15, 20). 1. Kathleen M. Kenyon, Digging up Jericho: The Results of the Jericho Excavations, 1952-1956 (London, U.K.: Praeger & Benn, 1957), 280.

Since it would normally take several months or even years to subdue a well-supplied city, as is illustrated from Masada, which took the Romans three years to capture, then the storage jars at Jericho filled with charred grain indicate they did not have time to consume the grain and reveals a short siege as described in the biblical narrative. Contrary to what was customary, the grain was not plundered to feed their armies, or taken by the citizens, but in accordance to God’s command Joshua was to burn the grain (Josh 6:1, 17–18). This discovery is unique in archaeology, given the high value of grain in ancient culture. It would be like taking a bank and burning the money.

This supports the reliability of the Bible.

Figure 59

Mudbrick from Jericho

The author holding a large mudbrick from the site of OT Jericho. Jericho was strongly fortified (Josh 2:5, 7, 15; 6:5, 20). Holland described that excavations revealed the “remains of three successive and massive plastered ramparts which surrounded”  the city. The gateway was uncovered in 1998 by the University of Rome. The fortification walls collapsed at the time the city was destroyed, possibly by earthquake activity (Josh 6:20. See Fig. 58).

Figure 58

© 2014 Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com

Dr. Bryant G. Wood pointing to the base of the mudbrick wall at Jericho, that he believes dates to the period of the Conquest (ca. 1400 BC).

NOTE: Enlargement of this file is unavailable due to copyright restrictions. © 2014 Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com

Figure 56

Tell es-Sulṭân, the site of biblical Jericho

1. Trench I excavated by Kathleen Kenyon (Area C, MB II 1800–1650 BC). 
2. 5 m. high Cyclopean Wall destroyed in ca. 1550 BC (Area A, MB III 1650–1550 BC). 
3. Houses built outside Building A1 against the eastern side of the tower (Area A, MB II 1800–1650 BC).

Figure 45

© 2014 Leen Ritmeyer, Ritmeyer Archaeological Design.

Chart showing the relative sizes of major cities in the Levant during the Late Chalcolithic through to the IB II periods, ca. 4000–2000 BC. Bâb edh-Dhrâʿ at this time was 9-10 acres, the size of Jerusalem and Jericho.

NOTE: Enlargement of this file is unavailable due to copyright restrictions © 2014 Leen Ritmeyer, Ritmeyer Archaeological Design.

Figure 47

Tall el-Ḥammâm in the Jordan Valley (kikkar)

The author sitting on Tall Habbassa overlooking Tall el-Ḥammâm and the Middle Bronze age city-state area around the Tall. Jericho is directly across the Jordan Valley and Tall Kefrein is visible to the right below the white arrow. Some archaeologists believe that Tall el-Ḥammâm is ancient Sodom while Tall Kefrein is Gomorrah.

Index

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

A

a priori    67
abecedary    68, 175, 176
Abel-Shittim    145, 146
Abila    195
Abimelech    120
Abraham    51, 58, 61, 62, 64, 70, 84, 92, 109, 110, 118, 119, 120, 121, 129, 136, 153, 154, 191, 216, 218, 282, 283, 284, 290
Absalom’s Tomb    185, 186
absolute dating    48
Achaea    215, 216, 267
acropolis    242, 245, 246, 274, 279, 286
Acrostic Psalm    89
AD, definition    44
Adam and Eve    108, 109, 111
Admah    121
adoption    120
adultery    244, 245, 277
Aegean    225, 238
Aegyptiaka    46, 62, 266
Aelia Eudocia    196
Aeschines    241
Agabus    267
agriculture    71, 108
Ahab    87, 158, 162, 173, 179
Aharoni, Yohanan    71, 76, 160, 177, 284
Ahaz Bulla    159
Ahaz, King of Judah    64, 65, 159
Ahaziah    158
Ai     69, 72, 121, 122, 123, 134, 137, 141, 148, 153, 154, 155, 196
Akkad    124
Akkadian    39, 83, 84, 85, 98, 117, 119, 156, 287
Al Khazneh (The Treasury)    186
al-Aqsa Mosque    180
al-Bireh    122
Albright, William F.    43, 57, 58, 68, 73, 76, 86, 87, 120, 122, 125, 126, 127, 132, 146, 153, 162, 193, 264, 282, 283
Aleppo Codex    88, 91
Alexander the Great    92, 117, 263
Alexandria    82, 93, 231, 236, 245, 291
alphabet    36, 37, 83, 86, 87, 89, 93, 168, 172, 175, 286, 287
altar    116, 158, 170, 221, 238, 242, 274, 286
Altar of Zeus    223, 242
amanuensis    95
Amarna    116
Amenhotep II    139, 143, 154
Amenhotep III    143, 146
Amenophis II    139
Amman    72, 195
Ammonites    176
Amorgus    225
Amorites    282
Amos    121
Amphipolis    211, 214
amphora    286
ancient Near East    63, 116
antediluvian    109, 110
anthropology    56, 67
Antioch of Pisidia    209, 213, 267
Antioch, Orontes    210, 236, 237
Antiochus II    250
Antiochus III    246, 279
Antiochus IV Epiphanes    180
antiquarians    35
antiquity, quotes from    58, 115, 116, 212, 215, 234
Antonia Fortress    206
apiary    174
Apocalypse     101, 224, 225, 227, 229, 234, 244, 247, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 281
Apocalypse of Elijah    271
Apocalypse of Moses    271
Apocrypha    101, 286
Apocrypha, Syriac    225
Apollo    215, 244, 277
apostles    100, 224, 225, 267
Apotheosis    232
Apuleius    241
Aqaba church    221
Aqaba, Gulf of    145
aqueduct    43, 75, 286
Aquila    94, 236
Arab    60, 73, 209, 210, 263, 286, 292
Arabia    124, 267
Arabic    41, 73, 78, 83, 102, 116, 126, 287, 289, 292, 293
Aramaic    83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 99, 121, 126, 148, 162, 203, 204, 288, 291, 292
Aramean    92
Arch of Titus    208
archaeology, a monologue    67
archaeology, biblical    62
archaeology, characteristics    55
archaeology, definition    34
archaeology, exact science    67
archaeology, excavation methods    72
archaeology, fallacies    66
archaeology, limitations    59
archaeology, Near-Eastern    62
archaeology, negative proof    69
archaeology, organized vandalism    55
archaeology, role    56
architect    55, 67
archive    57
Aretas, king    51, 267
Aristides    241
Ark of the Covenant    96
ark, Noah’s    111, 115
Artaxerxes    161
Artemis, cult of    223, 227, 234, 237, 238, 245, 270
Artemis, temple of    227, 237, 245, 270
Artemision    237, 238, 271
artifact(s)    35, 42, 43, 48, 49, 52, 67, 75, 76, 78, 178, 180, 181, 228, 248, 252, 286, 288, 289, 291, 292
Ascension of Isaiah    241
Asclepius    242, 274, 275, 276
ash    131
Ashkelon    59, 135, 142, 143, 168
Ashurnasirpal    38
Asia Minor     209, 224, 229, 233, 235, 236, 239, 242, 243, 251, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276
Asia, first of    239
Asiatic    39, 138, 139, 178, 251, 269, 288
assemblage    286
Associates for Biblical Research    70, 81, 144, 145, 196
assumptions    33, 66
Assyrian    83, 88
Athena    242
Athens    185, 211, 212, 213, 219, 267
atonement    57
Atrahasis Epic    39, 107, 108, 114, 116
Attaleia    210
Augustus    49, 184, 187, 194, 216, 231, 233, 234, 241, 243, 274
Aurelius, Marcus    231
Avaris    46, 137, 138, 139, 266
Avi-Yonah, Michael    76, 122, 153, 192, 196
Azekah Inscription    159

B

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Baal    244, 278
Bâb edh-Dhrâʿ    60, 127, 128, 129, 136, 282, 283
Babatha, Papyri    203
Babel, tower of    107, 108, 117, 118, 119
Babylon    39, 110, 116, 117, 124, 160
Babylonian     35, 39, 62, 73, 83, 87, 90, 91, 108, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 160, 161, 262, 291, 292
Babylonian captivity    117
Babylonian Chronicles    160
Babylonian Exile    87
Backham, Richard    202
Baghdad    39, 119
Balaam    235, 276, 277
Balaam Inscription    158
Balshazzar    160
ban (herem)    85, 148, 156
banking    250, 251, 281
baptism    190, 191, 279
Bar Kokhba    91, 126, 203
Barclay’s Gate    205
Barkay, Gabriel    160, 180, 181, 195
Barnabas    105, 212, 267
Baruch    61, 95, 101, 117, 160, 274, 291
Baruch Seal    160
basalt    286
basilica    221, 227, 286
Basilica of St. John    223
baulk    76, 77, 78, 80, 286, 291
Bayesian    49
BC, definition    44
bead    78
Bedouin    177, 183, 286
bee    238
beehives    174
Beersheva    54, 170
beheaded    267, 268
Behistun Relief    39, 161
Beitin    122, 154
Belzoni, Giovanni Battista    38
bema    208, 286
Ben Asher, Aharon    88, 91, 92
benchmark    75, 77, 78, 286
Ben-Hadad    158
Beni-Hasan mural    283
Ben-Tor, Amnon    154, 156, 164
Berea    267
Berlin Statue Pedestal Relief    141
Berosus    35
Beth-aven    155
Bethel    121, 122, 123, 134, 153, 154, 155, 196
Bethlehem    44, 49, 50, 160, 186, 187
Bethlehem Bulla    160
Beth-shean    173, 179
Beth-shemesh    170, 180
Bible Archaeology Search and Exploration Institute    113
Bible, Hebrew    34, 43, 61, 68, 71, 88, 92, 94, 98, 100, 114, 117, 137, 167, 176, 289, 292
Bible, The    83
bichrome    81, 150, 286
Bietak, Manfred    46, 138, 139
bioarchaeology    56
biographies    52
Birkeh Silwan    196, 197, 198
Birket el-Hamra    196, 197, 198
Birth of Christ    44
Bithynia    234, 241
Black Obelisk    39, 158, 179
blessing    235, 238, 240, 252
blind    251, 281
Bodmer Papyri    104
Boghaz-Köy Tablets    107
Book of Enoch    101, 103
book of life    248, 279
Book of the Cow of Heaven    140
Borsippa    117
botany    67, 76
Botta, Paul-Émile    38, 159
Bouchard, Pierre-François    161
bow    138, 289
brick    116, 117, 118, 151, 152, 289, 293
brimstone    124
British Museum    35, 36, 38, 44, 54, 59, 98, 118, 119, 135, 138, 139, 195, 214, 241
Bronze Age      xxviii, 46, 47, 52, 53, 60, 62, 71, 107, 126, 127, 129, 131, 134, 135, 138, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 156, 178, 193, 262, 264, 282, 283
bucket    78
bull    245, 274
bulla(e)    64, 83, 166, 167, 180, 287
Bultmann, Rudolph    60
Burckhardt, Johan Ludwig    40
burned    38, 73, 104, 118, 148, 152, 153, 155, 156, 180, 289
Byzantine    54, 101, 126, 185, 195, 196, 198, 201, 212, 218, 263

C

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Caesar, Julius    231
Caesarea    210, 218
Caesarea Maritima    73, 82, 135, 184, 186, 218, 267, 268
Caesarea Philippi    185
Caiaphas Ossuary    183
Cairo    36, 40, 54, 104, 137
Cairo Geniza    91
Calcolithic    287
calendar    50
calibration    47, 48, 49
Caligula    51, 52, 267
camel    144
Canaan      46, 64, 68, 70, 73, 92, 134, 135, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 154, 155, 156, 164, 175, 176, 288
Canaanite     64, 86, 92, 135, 138, 141, 142, 147, 148, 156, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 282, 292
canon, the    287, 291
Capernaum    185, 208, 249
Carthage, Council of    231
casemate    170, 176, 287
cave(s)    xxiv, 88, 89, 90, 113, 121, 189, 190, 199, 201, 227, 291
cemetery    60, 75, 118, 127, 128, 134, 139, 203, 291
Center for the Study of NT Manuscripts    102
centurion    219, 220
ceramic    43, 55, 76, 98, 131, 166, 168, 287, 290, 292
Chalcolithic    53, 130, 262, 264, 287
Chaldaika    62
Champollion, Jean-François    36, 37, 158
char    149
chariot    119, 138, 179, 289
Charlesworth, James H.    58, 88, 101, 184, 198
charnel houses    60
Chester Beatty Papyri    82, 103
Christ    111
Christmas    50
chronology     44, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 138, 164, 173, 178, 264, 282, 283
church    203, 217, 219, 224, 227, 229, 231, 235, 239, 240, 243, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 269, 270, 272, 277
Cicero    239, 241, 250, 251, 272
Cilicia    267
cistern    74, 190
Cities of the Plain    121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 132, 187, 282
citizenship    248
Claudius    39, 52, 160, 184, 185, 212, 213, 215, 216, 225, 247, 267
clay tablets    119
Clement of Alexandria    50, 241
Clermont, Charles    40, 71, 125, 159, 206, 207
Clermont-Ganneau, Charles    71
Cline, Eric    127, 129
Coca-Cola    43
Code of Hammurabi    65
Codex    88, 92, 100, 103, 105, 227, 287
Codex Alexandrinus    82
Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus    91
Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis    105, 217
Codex Cairensis    91, 92
Codex Claromontanus    105
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus    82, 105
Codex Koridethi    105
Codex Leningradensis    91
Codex Orientales    91
Codex Purpureus Petropolitanus    227
Codex Sinaiticus    82, 100, 105, 106, 186
Codex Vaticanus    82, 105, 106
Codex Washingtonianus    105
coins    51, 56, 75, 78, 180, 192, 196, 197, 213, 220, 228, 238, 240, 244, 248, 270, 272, 277, 286, 288, 290, 292
coliseum    287
Collins, Steven    54, 56, 68, 71, 72, 73, 101, 112, 126, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 145, 146, 176, 190, 194, 264, 265, 273, 275, 276, 279, 283
Colossae    209, 211, 250
Conder, Claude R.    40
congregation    251
conquest     38, 53, 64, 70, 73, 81, 122, 135, 136, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 167, 179, 192, 209, 262, 283
Copenhagen School, The    61
Copitc    83
copper    53, 108, 177, 178, 287
copper mine    176, 177
Copper Scrolls    91
coppersmith    230, 237, 243, 270
Coptic    37, 104, 287
Corinth     73, 185, 212, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 237, 267, 268
Corinthian captial    287
Cornuke, Robert    111, 113, 144
Cos    217
covenant    65, 144, 235, 252, 283, 287
creation    93, 108, 111, 116, 262
Crete    246
criminal    201
Crispus    215
cross    270
crown    240, 241, 272
crucifixion    201, 268
cultic priest    241
culture     50, 55, 75, 95, 96, 119, 120, 146, 147, 151, 152, 168, 173, 179, 181, 184, 240, 242, 243, 280, 283
cuneiform    39, 59, 83, 84, 97, 109, 119, 156, 287
cursive    83, 87, 287
Cybele    235
cylinder seal    98, 119
Cypriot    150, 166, 178, 286
Cyprus    52, 212, 213, 214, 217
Cyrus    120, 123, 161, 246, 279, 284
Cyrus Cylinder    161

D

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Damascus    51, 120, 130, 145, 162, 210, 267, 293
Damiqilishu    110
Darius    39, 161
date (plant)    56
dates    54, 63, 282, 283, 292
David, King    49, 53, 55, 59, 61, 86, 87, 126, 132, 133, 136, 140, 144, 145, 146, 150, 158, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 180, 181, 205
de Vaux, Roland    57, 184, 189
Dead Sea      51, 60, 62, 88, 89, 91, 98, 100, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 177, 178, 183, 184, 189, 191, 192, 202, 203, 205, 206, 288, 289, 291, 292
Dead Sea Scrolls     51, 62, 88, 89, 90, 91, 94, 96, 98, 100, 183, 184, 189, 190, 191, 192, 205, 288, 291, 292
Decapolis    51
Decian persecution    231, 232
Decius    231
deification of emperor    233
Delphi    215, 216
Demetrius of Phaleron    93
Demetrius the silversmith    237, 270
Demosthenes    241
Demotic    36, 37, 287
Demotic Chronicle    140
Department of Antiquities (DOA)    75, 151, 194
Derbe    209, 210
desert    100, 137, 146, 189, 203, 286, 288
desert glass    131
destruction     115, 118, 123, 129, 130, 131, 148, 152, 282, 292
Destruction of Mankind papyrus    135, 140, 141
deuterocanonical    94
Dever, William G.     34, 46, 57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76, 136, 146, 148, 156, 264
Diana    237
Dio Cassius    216, 234
Dio Chrysostom    248
Diocletian    220, 221
Dion    211
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus    34, 200
Dionysus, city of    248
Dionysus, godess    242
DNA    56
dolmen    287
Domitian    224, 225, 233, 234, 277
donkey    144
donum    245
Donusa    225
Dor    76, 164, 179
Doric    287
Dothan    168, 179
dunam    287
Dura Europos church    221
Durupinar    112
dynasty    53, 65, 87, 119, 138, 139, 141, 150, 156, 204, 262, 264, 266, 283, 288
dynasty, Omride    174, 179

E

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Early Bronze 1    127
Early Bronze 2    264
Early Bronze 3    127, 129, 264, 282
Early Bronze 4    127, 128, 264
Early Bronze Age (EBA)    72, 262, 264, 282, 290
earthquake    247, 248, 249, 251, 279, 280, 281
Ebla tablets    84, 107, 124, 125, 210, 282
ecclesiastical    238
eclipse    49, 50
Eden, garden of    238
Edersheim, Alfred    192
edicts    230
Edom    177, 178
Edomite    92, 176, 177, 178, 186
Egypt    36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 46, 47, 49, 50, 53, 69, 70, 75, 82, 93, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 111, 116, 121, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 156, 157, 178, 187, 199, 231, 262, 266, 274, 282, 283, 288, 289
Egypt Exploration Society    101
Egyptian Execration Texts    135, 288
Egyptian Hieratic    287
Egyptian Museum, Berlin    141
Egyptian priest    62
Egyptian slavery    64
Egyptologist    67
Egyptology    41, 46, 139, 141
Ekron    71
Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription    159
El Arish Stele    140
El-Amarna Tablets    135
Elamite    39, 118, 287
El-Bireh    154
elders    213, 216, 217
Eleazar    189, 202
Elephantine Papyri    161
Elgin Marbles    37, 38
el-Marwani Mosque    180
Emperor    194, 212, 227, 231, 233, 234, 243, 248, 277
Emperor worship    229, 243
En Freshkha    189
Enki    118
Enlil    118
Enoch    101, 108, 109, 271, 274, 291
Enuma Elish    39, 107, 108, 116
Ephesus    73, 211, 224, 225, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 267, 268, 270, 271, 275, 276
Ephesus, theater    223
Ephesus, tree-shrine    237, 238
Ephraim    72, 196
epigraphy    56, 287
Epiphanius    198, 225
Erastus    185, 218, 219, 220
Eridu Genesis    107, 108, 114
Eridu, city of    110
Esarhaddon Chronicle    160
eschatological    271
eṣ-Ṣafi    60, 127, 167, 168
eṣ-Ṣafi, Jordan    126, 132
Essene(s)    88, 183, 184, 189, 190, 191, 192, 247, 279, 288
Esther    88
Ethiopic    83
ethnobotany    56
et-Tell    69, 70, 122, 137, 153, 154, 155
Eucharist    274
Eusebius    35, 194, 224, 225, 226, 227, 274, 290
excavation      35, 40, 42, 55, 56, 59, 67, 69, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 84, 85, 118, 131, 145, 149, 150, 151, 168, 169, 171, 177, 194, 209, 237, 291
excavation specialists    55
exegesis    59, 89
Exile    96, 262
Exodus, the    54, 68, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143, 146, 150, 156, 157, 262, 282, 283
Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain    60
Ezra    85, 96, 101, 206

F

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Fabian    231
Famine Stele    107
Faynan    177
Feast of Tabernacles    193
Felix    52, 267, 268
Fertile Crescent    288
Festus    52, 268
Field of Mars    232
Fifa    60, 128
Finkelstein, Israel    49, 61, 85, 146, 147, 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 177, 179, 283
fire    124, 127, 148, 149, 152, 155, 173, 277, 281
First Temple Period    175, 288
Fischer, David H.    69
fish    118, 167, 220
flagstone    155, 288
Flandin, Eugene Napoleon    38, 159
flint    286, 288
flood, the    39, 57, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116, 262
fortification    152
fortress    155, 165, 169, 171
four-roomed house    136, 138, 146, 162, 176
Freedman, David Noel    264, 282
fresco    288
fulgurite    132, 288

G

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Gabriel's Revelation    204
Gaius    215, 231
Galatia    267
Galatians    267
Galil, Gershon    85, 169, 170, 171, 172
Galilee    51, 173, 179, 187, 192, 193, 201, 286
Galilee, Sea of    122
Gallio    185, 208, 212, 214, 215, 216, 267
Garfinkel, Yosef    53, 85, 169, 170, 171, 173
garments    247, 251, 279, 281
Gath    167, 168, 170
Gaza    124, 145
Gebel Khashm et-Tarif    144, 145
Geisler, Norman L.    62, 264, 265, 266, 283
Gemara    90
gematria    288
genealogy    108, 110
Genesis    57, 85, 108, 109, 111, 114, 115, 116, 118, 121, 124, 129
Geniza Caves    190
genre    227
Gentile(s)    206, 207, 217, 270
geology    67, 76, 288, 290
German    35, 40, 54, 141, 142
Gezer    59, 68, 71, 86, 170, 175, 176, 179
Gezer tablet    85
Gibeon    71, 155
Gihon Spring    159, 166, 167, 196
Gilgamesh    39, 107, 108, 114, 115, 116
Gilgamesh, Epic of    114, 115
Givat HaMivtar heel bone    208
Giza    156
Glueck, Nelson    54, 57, 145, 177, 193, 245, 282, 283
Gnostic(s)    82, 104, 184, 198, 200, 245, 270, 272, 277, 288
Gnosticism    105
goats    108, 146
God Saviour, Theos Soter    243
God-fearing    217
Golan, Oded    159, 203, 204
gold    99, 119, 177, 222, 245, 281
Goliath    167, 168, 172
Gomorrah    84, 108, 121, 124, 125, 126, 129, 136, 193, 282
Görg, Manfred    141, 142, 143
Gospel of Judas    198, 199, 200
Gospel of Thomas    104
Gospels    44, 52, 60, 82, 100, 101, 104, 105, 184, 206, 321
Goths    237
goupha    78
GPS    56
graben    288
grain    152
Great Death Pit    119
Greco-Roman    95, 103, 111, 184, 210, 212, 214, 226, 229, 266
Greece    200, 215, 225, 267
Greek     34, 36, 44, 46, 51, 62, 70, 82, 83, 87, 88, 92, 93, 94, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 126, 183, 184, 185, 187, 195, 198, 199, 200, 203, 206, 207, 211, 212, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 224, 226, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 247, 248, 271, 274, 275, 276, 278, 280, 284, 287, 289, 291, 293
Gregorian calendar    50
Gregory of Nazianzus    228
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)    75, 113
guild    230, 231, 243, 244, 270, 277, 278
Gyarus    225
gymnasium    245

H

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Hammat-Gader    195
Hammurabi    84, 107, 110, 156
handpick    78
Haran    92, 118
Hatshepsut, Queen    140
Hattem, Willem C. van    282
Hazael    158, 167
Hazor    59, 71, 73, 77, 135, 147, 148, 156, 164, 170, 179
head    64, 118
healing    250
Hebrew    62, 65, 73, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 101, 112, 114, 116, 117, 120, 121, 122, 126, 145, 148, 162, 168, 193, 196, 203, 205, 206, 287, 288, 291, 292
Hebrew, archaic biblical    86
Hebron    71, 134, 169
Heidelberg    202
Hellenism    88, 92, 93, 200, 201, 226, 263, 272
Hellenistic    62, 73, 101, 132, 209, 226, 265
Hemer, Colin J.      209, 214, 228, 231, 242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 280, 281
Hendel, Ronald S.    61, 62, 136
Herculaneum    35, 36
heresy    235
hermeneutics    58
Herod Agrippa I    52
Herod Antipas    51, 186, 187, 192, 193
Herod the Great    44, 49, 50, 58, 184, 186, 187, 188, 208, 288
Herod the Great Ostraca    208
Herod’s tomb    187
Herodian    288
Herodias    51
Herodium    187, 188
Herodotus    35, 99, 117, 200
Heshbon    54, 193, 194, 195, 196
Hezekiah bulla(e)    159
Hezekiah, king    63, 65, 159, 196, 198
Hezekiah’s tunnel    196
Hierapolis    211, 223, 250, 251, 281
hieroglyph(s)    36, 37, 83, 137, 139, 142, 143, 161, 287, 288
Hieronymus    113
high priest    183, 186, 274, 280
history, moments in    231, 232, 234
Hittite(s)    57, 107, 121, 282, 287
hoard    288
Hoerth, Alfred J.    34, 35, 39, 43, 55, 57, 58, 63, 67, 80, 283
Hoffmeier, James K.    34, 49, 54, 55, 59, 63, 68, 69, 71, 136, 140, 141, 143, 144, 148, 162, 169, 283
Hogarth, D. G.    237
Holden, Joseph M.    62, 264, 283
Homer    70, 71
Homer, Iliad    70, 71, 72, 235
honey    98, 191
hot springs    194, 250, 281
House of Yahweh Ostracon    160
household gods    120
Hurrian    84
Hyksos    138, 139, 140, 146, 155, 156, 283, 288

I

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I am that I am    141
Iconium    209, 210
idolatry    244, 277
Idumaean    186
Ignatius of Antioch    248
Iliad    70, 71, 72
Immer    180, 181
immersion    190
immorality    235, 244, 245, 274, 277
imperial cult    230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 237, 239, 241, 242, 244, 249, 272, 274, 275, 276, 278, 280
imprisoned    192, 268
in situ    71, 78, 166, 171, 181, 289
Incirli stele    158
inkhorn    96
inkwells    98
inscription(s)    37, 39, 43, 51, 56, 58, 59, 67, 68, 71, 78, 83, 85, 95, 98, 119, 141, 143, 156, 162, 163, 166, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 179, 181, 184, 186, 187, 192, 195, 201, 202, 203, 204, 207, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 227, 228, 238, 244, 272, 278, 280, 286, 290, 291, 292
inscription, Erastus    218
inscription, Gallio    216
inscription, Miletus    217
inscription, Sergius Paulus    213
inspiration    106, 289
Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA)    262, 264, 282
Ionia    239, 241
Ionic captial    287
Ipuwer papyrus    135, 140
Iran    112, 113, 116, 118, 288
Iraq    38, 60, 110, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124
Iraq National Museum    119
Irenaeus of Lyons    101, 198, 199, 225, 270
Iron Age    43, 44, 46, 47, 52, 53, 55, 62, 71, 72, 76, 77, 85, 108, 130, 146, 147, 151, 152, 154, 158, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 262, 284, 290
Iron Age 1    72, 265
Iron Age 2    44, 72, 162, 179, 262
Iron Age 3    44
Isaac    65, 84, 114, 120, 290
Isaiah Scroll    89, 94
Ishmael    120
Islam    60, 180, 293
Israel    39, 40, 43, 44, 46, 47, 53, 56, 58, 61, 69, 70, 76, 85, 86, 95, 99, 100, 124, 126, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 154, 156, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 185, 188, 189, 201, 205, 220, 264, 272, 278, 283
Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA)    75, 167, 171, 185, 203
Israeli    76, 77, 85, 121, 143, 187, 203, 204, 218, 220, 263
Israelite(s)    61, 64, 70, 85, 95, 111, 136, 137, 141, 144, 146, 147, 154, 158, 164, 166, 170, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 179, 180
Izbet Sartah abecedary    174, 175

J

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Jacob    84, 120, 137, 139, 203, 290
Jacobovici, Simcha    201
Jacobson, Thorkild    109
Jacobus    203
James    203, 204, 224, 267, 268, 275, 276
Jamnia, Council of    249
Jebel Magharah    144
Jebel Musa    144, 145
Jebel Sin Bisher    144
Jebel Usdum    126
Jehoash Inscription    159
Jehoiachin Ration Record    160
Jehoiakim, king    166
Jehoram    158, 179
Jehu    158, 174, 179
Jerash    73, 195
Jeremiah    95, 160, 166, 170, 180, 181
Jericho    59, 72, 75, 78, 80, 81, 85, 111, 121, 126, 137, 141, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 186, 190, 194, 284
Jeroboam    65, 158, 159
Jerome    86, 225, 290, 293
Jerusalem    40, 44, 54, 61, 66, 71, 72, 73, 76, 85, 86, 90, 93, 99, 121, 122, 126, 135, 147, 148, 149, 154, 156, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181, 185, 186, 188, 189, 190, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 201, 203, 206,207, 208, 217, 220, 224, 231, 267, 268, 275, 276, 282, 291
Jerusalem, destruction of    291
Jeselsohn stone    204
Jesus    44, 46, 50, 51, 55, 57, 58, 60, 66, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 99, 102, 104, 124, 183, 184, 185, 187, 192, 193, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 212, 220, 221, 224, 226, 228, 235, 250, 275, 276
Jesus, birth    50
Jevel al-Lawz    144, 145
jewelry    119, 167
Jewish    44, 50, 51, 60, 61, 62, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 98, 100, 101, 132, 144, 184, 186, 189, 190, 191, 193, 197, 198, 201, 202, 204, 206, 209, 212, 217, 229, 230, 239, 248, 249, 268, 271, 272, 274, 284, 288, 290, 291, 292, 295
Jewish Temple    189
Jews    34, 45, 49, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 201, 205, 208, 215, 217, 229, 230, 240, 250, 267, 270, 272, 281, 289, 292
Jezebel    235, 244, 245, 277, 278
John the Baptist    192
John, Monastery of St.    227
John, the Apostle    186, 209, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 233, 235, 239, 242, 244, 247, 249, 250, 251, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281
John, the Baptist    191, 192
Jordan    39, 47, 53, 60, 73, 75, 90, 121, 122, 123, 126, 128, 129, 130, 132, 148, 176, 177, 178, 186, 193, 194, 205, 221, 286, 289, 292
Jordan River    72, 122
Jordan Valley    72, 90, 121, 122, 130, 282
Joseph    65, 69, 70, 120, 139, 153, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205
Josephus    34, 35, 49, 50, 51, 52, 93, 96, 101, 117, 121, 186, 187, 190, 192, 196, 200, 207, 208, 241, 288, 291
Joshua    61, 62, 64, 69, 70, 73, 122, 135, 136, 137, 141, 145, 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156
Judaea Capta    189, 208
Judah    43, 44, 47, 50, 64, 90, 124, 146, 158, 159, 161, 163, 166, 167, 169, 170, 175, 177, 179, 180, 202, 203, 289
Judahite    169, 170, 171, 177
Judaism    190, 207, 234, 241, 272
Judaizers    248
Judas Iscariot    199
Jude    202
Judea    52, 186, 189, 267, 268
Judean Desert    189
Judges    262
judgment    114, 121

K

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Kadesh Barnea    144, 145
Karnak    135, 158
Karnak Temple    135
Kenyon, Kathleen    71, 73, 75, 80, 103, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 165, 173, 264, 282, 291
Kerak, Wadi    127
Ketef Hinnom Silver Amulets    160
Khirbet el-Maqatir    70, 122, 154, 155, 196
Khirbet en-Nahas    178
Khirbet Hamra Ifdan    178
Khirbet Kafrayn    130
Khirbet Khanazir    60, 127, 128
Khirbet Nisya    122, 154
Khirbet Qeiyafa    68, 85, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176
Khirbet Qumran    189
Khirbet Sweimeh    130
khirbet(s)    42, 73, 189, 289, 292
Khorsabad    38
Kidron Valley    185
kikkār    121, 122, 123, 126, 130, 131, 134
King’s Highway    75
Kinneret    179, 183
Kitchen, Kenneth A.    46, 47, 62, 63, 65, 69, 70, 120, 123, 129, 136, 138, 140, 141, 162, 178, 266, 283
Kitchener, Horatio Herbert    40
klinker    131, 289
Koine Greek    36, 92, 183, 289
krater    289
Kurkh stele Monolith    158

L

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Lachish    39, 87, 99, 159, 160, 180
Lachish Letters    87, 160
Lachish Reliefs    39, 159
Lachish Step inscription    87
lamb    274
Lamech    109
Lampe, Peter    202, 203
lampstand    238, 270
Laodicea    210, 211, 224, 228, 235, 247, 249, 250, 251, 275, 276, 281
Lapp, Paul    43, 126, 127, 282
Large Stone Structure    164, 165
Late Bronze Age (LBA)    53, 69, 70, 72, 81, 83, 130, 135, 137, 145, 146, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153, 155, 169, 178, 262, 286
Late Bronze gap    130, 145
Latin    77, 83, 93, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106, 184, 194, 201, 206, 213, 218, 219, 220, 221, 225, 231, 232, 234, 237, 241, 243, 274, 278, 286, 293
lava    112, 131
Lawrence, T. E.    54
Layard, Austin Henry    38, 107, 158, 159
Lazarus    58
leather    89, 98, 100, 104, 199, 205
legend    64
Lemaire, André    203
Leningrad Codex    88
Letter of Aristeas    93
Levant    46, 47, 48, 53, 138, 139, 145, 150, 156, 164, 165, 192, 195, 196, 262, 264, 288, 289
Levites    96
Libby, Willard F.    48, 49
libellus    231, 234
lightning    132, 288
Lisan    126, 289
literal    36
Livia Drusilla    194
Livias    192, 193, 194, 195, 196
lmlk    63
local reference    228, 239, 240, 242, 243, 269
locus    71, 77, 78, 155, 165, 289, 290, 291
locust    191
Loftus, W. K.    118
looting    59, 60, 137
Lot    121, 122, 282
Louvre    35, 38, 84, 195
Lubbock, John    52
Lucian    241, 247
Luke     50, 51, 52, 186, 187, 192, 193, 200, 209, 212, 214, 215, 252
lukewarm    228, 235, 250, 251, 281
Luxor    82, 103
Lydia    243, 245, 277
Lynch, William F.    289
Lysanias Inscription    183
Lystra    209, 210

M

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Maccabees    101, 241, 263, 274
Macedonia    209, 211, 214, 267, 268
Machaerus    190, 192
Macrobius    187
Madaba    132, 195
Madaba Map    132, 194, 196, 223
Maeir, Aren    167, 168, 171
Magdalen Papyrus    82, 102, 103, 104
Magi    49
malediction    252
Malta    268
Malthace    186
Mamertine Prison    208
Manasseh    65
Manetho    35, 46, 62, 266
manna    274, 275, 276
Manual of Discipline  1QS  190
manuscript(s)    56, 62, 83, 88, 91, 92, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 184, 186, 190, 218, 227, 287, 293
Marcion    104
Marduk    62, 117
Mari tablets    65, 84, 85, 107, 282, 283
Mariame    203
Mariette, Auguste    40
Marshalltown    78
Martha    202, 203
Martin Bodmer Papyri    82
Martyrdom of Polycarp    230, 241, 248
Mary    202, 203, 227
Masada    56, 99, 152, 184, 190
Masoretic text    88, 89, 289
Masorites    91
mastaba    116, 289
Matthew    186, 202, 203
Matthiae, Paolo    84, 107, 125
maximalist    60, 61, 63, 64, 289
Mazar, Amihai    34, 164, 167, 173, 174, 179, 283, 284
Mazar, Benjamin    76, 208
Mazar, Eilat    164
McRay, John    33, 34, 35, 39, 43, 51, 55, 63, 67, 190, 209, 210, 211, 214, 218, 283
Mediterranean    200, 217, 224, 238
Megiddo    49, 59, 65, 150, 179, 219, 220, 221
Menahem    65
Menkaure, pharaoh    156
Merenptah Battle Reliefs    135
Merenptah Stele    135, 141, 142, 143
Merenptah, Pharaoh    135, 142, 143, 144
Merrill, Eugene    282
Mesha Stele    158, 163, 179
Mesopotamia    38, 39, 57, 75, 84, 110, 114, 119, 120, 125, 179, 288, 293
Messiah    191, 205, 206, 229, 274
Messianic    205, 243
metallurgist    67
Methuselah    109
metric system    75
Michigan Papyri    231
microletters    51
Middle Bronze 1    264, 282
Middle Bronze 2A    264, 282
Middle Bronze 2B    130, 264
Middle Bronze Age (MBA)     59, 69, 70, 72, 78, 107, 129, 130, 131, 132, 135, 138, 146, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 193, 196, 262, 264, 282, 283, 286
Middle East    33, 34, 35, 46, 56, 74, 150, 171, 286
Middle Kingdom    139, 266
Midrash    91
Migdol    68
mikveh    189, 190, 191, 197, 208, 289
Miletus    216, 217, 225, 226
military    40, 51, 64, 80, 81, 96, 114, 148, 155, 178, 179, 229, 264, 292
Millard, Alan R.    34, 49, 55, 63, 68, 69, 71, 85, 86, 87, 95, 97, 98, 99, 114, 116, 120, 123, 136, 162, 170, 172, 173, 283
Millo    164, 165
mines, Solomon’s    177
minimalist    60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 136, 162, 169, 170, 177, 289
minuscule    100
miracles    60, 64, 208
Mishnah    90, 91, 191, 289, 292
Mishnaic    90, 91, 94, 263, 292
missionary journey    212, 216, 237, 267
Moabite    83, 87, 92, 158, 163, 171
monarchy    262
monolith    290
monolithic stele    205
monotheism    290
monument    38, 39, 40, 60, 185
morning Star    245
Mosaic law    96
mosaic(s)    56, 132, 196, 218, 290, 292
Moses     58, 61, 62, 64, 65, 70, 91, 92, 108, 109, 120, 135, 144, 145, 146, 235, 276, 290
Moses, Assumption of    101
Mosul    39
Mount Ararat    112, 113, 114, 116
Mount Cudi    112
Mount Horeb    144, 145
Mount Nebo    72, 134, 146, 195
Mount of Olives    203
Mount of Sodom    126
Mount Pisgah    146
Mount Scopus    180
Mount Sinai    144, 145, 274
Mount Tmolus    245, 248
mudbrick(s)    136, 138, 149, 169, 291
Munsell soil kit    78
Muslim(s)    45
Mysia    241, 243, 272
myth    34, 66, 70, 71, 108, 136, 186, 229, 252

N

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Nabatean    51, 54, 126, 186
Nabonidus    35, 160, 161
Nabonidus Chronicle    160
Nabonidus Cylinder    160
Nabopolassar    117, 160
Nag Hammadi    82, 100, 104, 105, 184, 198, 200
nakedness    251, 281
Nanna    117, 119
Napoleon Bonaparte    36
Naqa    60
narrative    64, 132
National Geographic Society    199
nativity    50
Nazareth    202
Neapolis    211
Nebuchadnezzar    117, 160
Nebuchadnezzar’s Brick    160
necropolis    203, 279
Negev    54, 144, 178, 218, 282, 283
Neocaesareia    248
Neolithic    43, 53, 262, 264, 290
Nero    185, 215, 221, 224, 225, 267, 288
Nero, sestertius coin    230
Nerva    225
Neta’im    169
Netzer, Ehud    56, 99, 187, 188, 208
neutrality    34, 60, 66
New Testament     33, 51, 52, 83, 105, 186, 191, 192, 202, 203, 204, 206, 215, 216, 217, 218, 224, 226, 229, 247, 251, 273, 274, 275, 276, 279, 281
Newcombe, Stewart    54
Nicholas of Damascus    113
Nicolaitans    235, 270, 271, 276
Nicopolis    212
night diggers    60
Nile Delta    137, 138
Nile River    38, 100, 122, 290
Nimrud    99
Nineveh    38, 114, 124
ninth century BC    96, 164, 165, 167, 168, 177
Nippur    110
Noah    108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118
Noah’s Ark    112
nomadic    137, 146, 147, 177, 286
Northern Kingdom    174, 179
Northern Sodom Theory (NST)    123, 126, 132, 224
Numeira (Numayra)    60, 127, 128, 129
numismatics    56, 228, 290
Nuzi tablets    107, 119, 120, 282, 283, 284

O

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oath    287
obelisk    290
obsidian (volcanic glass)    132, 290
obsidian hydration    49, 78
Occam’s Razor    68
Odes of Solomon    241, 274
Odyssey    70, 71
oil lamp    176, 195, 196
Old Testament    227, 235, 238, 252, 271, 274
olive pits    171, 178
Onomasticon    290
Ophir    177
oracles    269
Origen of Alexandria    225, 226
orphan    172, 192
orthodox    288
orthography    143
Ortiz, Steven M.    55, 63, 159, 162
ossuary    201, 202, 203, 204, 290
Ossuary, James    203
ostracon(-ca)    85, 86, 87, 99, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 290
Ovid, Metamorphoses    235
Oxyrhynchus Papyri    100, 101, 102, 104, 183, 231

P

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Palaeolithic    53
palaeo-osteology    56
paleobotany    56
paleoethnobotany    290
paleography    88, 100, 143, 290
Paleo-Hebrew    85, 86, 90, 292
Palestine    34, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 52, 54, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 73, 75, 76, 85, 92, 94, 116, 127, 128, 135, 143, 147, 149, 150, 153, 170, 173, 175, 193, 264, 267, 272, 282, 283, 288, 289
Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF)    40, 54, 165
Palestinian    90
palimpsest    100
palynology    290
paperwork    55, 56
Paphos    212, 213
papyrus(-ri)    82, 89, 90, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 135, 139, 140, 183, 184, 189, 199, 205, 290
parables    235
paradise    238, 270
paraenesis    235
parchment(s)    90, 98, 99, 100, 106, 290
Parrot, André    65, 84, 107
Parthenon    37, 38, 185
Passover    49, 50, 193, 267, 268
pastiche    78
pastoral nomads    127
Patara    217
Patmos    211, 224, 225, 226, 227, 239, 247, 273, 277, 279, 280
patriarch(s)     54, 61, 70, 84, 107, 108, 111, 120, 123, 134, 136, 137, 282, 283, 284, 290
Paul, the apostle    51, 52, 96, 104, 127, 207, 208, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 236, 238, 239, 243, 267, 268
Pausanias    237
Pentapolis    121, 122, 124, 126, 133, 134
Pentateuch    290
Pentecost    50, 268
Perea    51, 187, 193
Perga    210
Pergamum (Pergamos)    100, 211, 223, 224, 232, 239, 241, 242, 243, 248, 274, 275, 276, 290
Pergamum Museum    242
persecution    215, 217, 224, 229, 231, 234, 235, 239, 240, 270
Persepolis Relief    161
Persian    39, 62, 65, 87, 92, 97, 98, 154, 158, 161, 171, 176, 245, 262, 265, 284
Persian Period    266
Peter    208, 267
Peter’s House    208
Petra    51, 186
Petrie, William Matthew Flinders    40, 41, 42, 43, 135
Pharaoh      44, 46, 116, 120, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 156, 173, 178, 264
Phasaelis    51
Philadelphia    119, 211, 224, 230, 235, 248, 249, 251, 280
Philippi    185, 211, 243, 268
Philistia    168, 169
Philistine    81, 85, 146, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171
Philo the Cyrene    203
Philostratus    241, 242, 245
Phoenician    83, 86, 92, 135, 166, 171, 175, 176, 287
photography    67, 75, 76, 80
Phrygian eye salve    251
pick    78
pig bones    146, 170
pigs    108, 146, 170, 187
Pilate, Pontius    50, 58, 102, 183, 184
pilgrim flask    176, 290
pilgrimage    127
pillar    237, 249, 280
pillar of salt    122
Pionius    230, 239, 240
Pi-Ramesses    138
Pisidia    241
Pithom    138
pithos    146, 166, 290
Plato    34, 100
Pliny the Elder    212, 227, 242, 247, 248
Pliny the Younger    230, 234
plumb line    78
Plutarch    274
Politarch(s)    211, 214
Pollen    290
Polybius    248
Polycarp    230, 239, 248, 272
polygamy    108
polytheism    230, 274, 276
Pomegranate Inscription    159
Pompeii    35, 36
Pompeii graffiti    223
Pool of Bethesda    208
Pool of Siloam    66, 86, 159, 196, 197, 198
Pope    222
potassium-argon    49, 78
potsherd(s)    55, 85, 173, 290
pottery    35, 42, 43, 55, 56, 67, 72, 75, 77, 78, 80, 99, 130, 131, 132, 146, 150, 151, 155, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 174, 176, 179, 180, 189, 197, 198, 243, 277, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292
pottery washing    78
pottery, Roman    77
poverty    231, 251
presupposition    60, 66
Price, J. Randall    264, 265, 266, 282, 283
priests    233, 241, 249
Priscilla    237
Proconsul    52, 213, 214, 215
progressive revelation    106
Promised Land    145
propaganda    62
prophet(s)    58, 100, 277, 291
Protestant Church    101
Proto-Canaanite    83, 166, 168
Pseudepigrapha    100, 291
Ptolemy II    93
Puabi    119
publish    59
Puech, Émile    104, 170, 172, 186
pyramid    116, 289, 293
pyramid of Giza    156

Q

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Q or Quelle    213, 291
Queen of Sheba    177
Quirinius    184
Qumran     78, 88, 90, 91, 96, 98, 100, 101, 103, 184, 189, 190, 191, 192, 288, 291, 292

R

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Rabbah    291
Rachel    92, 120
radiocarbon dating    46, 47, 48, 49, 56, 78, 88, 113, 128, 165, 171, 178, 199, 222
ram    119
Rameses (Avaris)    137
Ramesses II    38, 138, 140, 143
Ramsay, William    185, 209, 210, 213, 228, 229, 241, 242, 243, 244, 248, 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 281
Ras Shamra    292
Ras Shamra Tablets    114, 135
Rassam, Hormuzd    107, 160, 161
Rast, Walter E.    124, 127, 128, 129, 282
Rawlinson, Henry Creswicke    39, 118, 159, 161
Reich, Ronny    166, 167, 197, 198
reliability    209, 230
resurrection    58, 96, 104, 111, 202, 206, 272
Revelation, book of    224
revetment    149, 291
revisionist    61, 64
Rhodes    88, 100, 217
Rich, Claudius James    39, 160
righteousness    251
Ritmeyer, Leen    207
Robinson, Edward    40, 159
Robinson’s Arch    205
Rohl, David M.    46, 47, 139, 266
Roma    230, 231, 239
Roman citizen    231
Roman emperor    231
Roman law    227, 230
Roman period    53
Roman road    193
Roman Senate    231
Roman(s)    43, 44, 46, 50, 51, 53, 78, 88, 90, 101, 152, 185, 186, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200, 201, 203, 205, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 221, 225, 227, 228, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, 243, 245, 250, 263, 265, 267, 268, 273, 274, 277,281, 286
Rome    34, 43, 49, 73, 82, 84, 91, 111, 114, 149, 151, 152, 197, 200, 212, 213, 218, 221, 222, 225, 231, 232, 236, 239, 248, 267, 268, 272, 287, 292
Romulus and Remus    232
Rosetta Stone    36, 37, 39, 161, 287
Royal Steward Inscription    159
royal tombs    118, 119
Rylands Papyrus    82, 102, 103

S

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Sabbath    90, 230
Sackler Library, Oxford    101
sacred groves    238, 270
sacrifice(s)    115, 116, 230, 231, 233
Sadducees    96, 189
Salamis    212, 225
salt curse    123
Salt, Henry    38
Samaria    154, 159, 161, 179, 351
Samaritan    186
Samothrace    211
Samuel    118
Sanhedrin    96, 291
Sanhedrin, Mishnah tractate    201
Saqqara    116
sarcophagus    139, 187, 188, 221, 222, 291
Sardis    211, 224, 235, 243, 245, 246, 247, 248, 273, 279
Sargon II    38, 99, 159
Sarsekim Tablet    160
Satan or Devil    240, 245, 249, 275, 276, 277
Satan’s Throne    242, 275, 276
satellite    75, 112, 137
Saulcy, R. de    40, 125
Sayce, Archibald H.    57
scarab    146, 153, 155, 171, 177, 178, 291
Schaub, R. Thomas    127, 128, 129, 132, 282
Schliemann, Heinrich    71, 72
scribe    95, 96, 98, 190
scriptorium    98, 189, 291
Scripture(s)    201, 289
scroll(s)    89, 90, 93, 100, 189, 228
seal    63, 64, 78, 86, 166, 167, 180
Sebastoi    232, 233
Second Jewish Revolt    88
second millennium    46, 47, 65, 84, 136, 143
Second Temple Period    196, 198, 201, 208, 291
Secundus    234
seeds    56, 78
Seetzen, Ulrich    40
Seleusid    245
Semite    138, 142, 288
Semitic    83, 84, 86, 92, 111, 142, 143, 166, 168, 171, 180, 203, 287, 292
Sennacherib    179, 180
Sennacherib Prism    159
Sepphoris    192
Septuagint (LXX)      62, 82, 89, 92, 93, 94, 108, 286, 289, 291
Sergius Paulus    52, 184, 212, 213, 214
serpent    243, 275, 276
Seters, John Van    61, 70, 136, 164, 284
Seti, pharaoh    135, 140, 141
Severus Alexander    220
Severus, Sulpicius    242, 274
sexagesimal    110
shaft tomb(s)    60, 127, 128, 146, 291
Shalmaneser    39, 158, 179
Shanks, Hershel     55, 61, 71, 85, 124, 140, 142, 143, 171, 185, 188, 197, 198, 203, 204, 282
Shebna    159
Shechem    179
shekel(s)    65
Shem    83
Shema    65, 159
Shepherd of Hermas    xxiv, 101, 105, 247
Similitude    247
Vision    247
sherd (shard)    56, 70, 72, 78, 131, 145, 168, 176, 287, 291
Sheshonq    162, 178
Shiloh    71
Shishak    44, 158, 173, 178
Shoshenq    173
shroud of Turin    200
Shukron, Eli    160, 166, 167, 197, 198
Sibyl Sambathe    244
Sibylline Oracles    101, 274, 277
Side of Pamphylia    210
Sidon    124
siege    152
sigmoid curve    109, 110
Siloam Inscription    85, 86, 159
Silver Bowl of Artaxerxes I    161
Simeon    186, 202
Simon    54, 68, 200, 203, 204, 205, 226
Sinai    54, 68, 144, 145
Sinai Peninsula    105, 144
Sisterhood    120
skin-diver    67
slave    65, 120
Sloane, Hans    35
Smith, Eli    40
Smith, George E.    57
Smyrna    211, 224, 230, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241, 245, 246, 248, 249, 270, 272, 273, 274
Society of Antiquities    35
Society of Biblical Archaeology    57
Sodom    53, 54, 56, 59, 68, 71, 72, 84, 108, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 145, 146, 193, 282, 283
Sodom, destruction of    131
soil    56, 76, 77, 78, 180, 245, 249, 288, 289, 292
soldiers    246
Solomon, King    49, 57, 61, 64, 136, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 198, 288
Solomon’s Stables    180
Son of God    277
soreg barrier    205, 206
Southern Sodom Theory - SST    282
Spain    268
Sparks, Brad C.    139
Speos Artemidos Inscription    140
Sphinx    156
square supervisor    55, 78
square, archaeological    43, 55, 56, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 150, 286, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292
squeeze    186, 291
St. Anne, Chapel of    227
St. Catherine Monastery    105
St. Philip’s Martyrium    223
stadium    230
Statius, Silvae    277
stele (stela)    107, 135, 140, 141, 162, 292
Stepped Stone Structure    164, 165
Stoa    292
Stone Age    52, 290
storage jars    152
Strabo    236, 238, 243, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 280
strata    42, 43, 65, 67, 70, 80, 136, 151, 165, 173, 180, 286, 289, 290, 292
stratification    292
stratigraphy    35, 41, 42, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 180, 290
Stripling, Scott    132, 154, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196
stylus    97, 98, 287
submarine    126
Succoth    122
Suetonius    52, 234
Suez Canal    54
suffering    205, 224, 225, 235, 239, 245, 249, 272
Sumer    110, 116, 262
Sumerian    83, 84, 85, 108, 110, 111, 114, 117, 118, 287
Sumerian King List    107, 109, 110, 111
surface survey    72, 75, 169
survey, archaeological    59, 75
Symmachus    94
synagogue    215, 217, 230, 248, 249, 272
synagogue of Satan    230, 240, 249, 272
synagogue, Beth Alpha    245
synagogue, Capernaum    249
Syria    39, 65, 84, 92, 107, 128, 145, 173, 209, 210, 267, 288, 289
Syriac    83, 101, 225
Syro-Canaanite    286
Syro-Palestinian    34, 138

T

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Taanack    179
tablets    37, 39, 56, 57, 59, 65, 84, 85, 99, 108, 119, 120, 124
tablets, wax    98
Tacitus    50, 225, 227, 232, 239, 247, 248, 251
Takht-e Soleyman (Throne of Solomon)    112
Tale of Two Brothers papyrus    135, 140
Tall Bleibel    130
Tall eahl es-Sarabet    130
Tall el-Azeimeh    130
Tall el-Hammam     56, 59, 72, 73, 78, 130, 131, 132, 145, 176, 193, 194, 195, 283, 292
Tall el-Ḥammâm    130, 286
Tall el-Mustah    130
Tall er-Ramêh    130, 193, 194
Tall Ghannam    130
Tall Ghrubba    130
Tall Iktanu    130
Tall Kefrein (al-Kafrayn)    130
Tall Mwais    131
Tall Nimrin    130
Tall Umayri    136
Talmud    90, 290, 292
Talpiot Tomb    201, 202, 203
tape measure    78
Tappy, Ron E.    68, 175
Targum    91, 92, 292
Tarsus    210, 267
Taylor Prism    159
technology    93, 108, 116
Tel Dan    71, 73, 87, 135, 158, 179, 292
Tel Dan stele    87, 158, 162, 179
Tel Reḥōv    173, 174, 179
Tel Tsaf    53
Tel Zayit abecedary    68, 87, 174, 175, 176
Tell Beit Mirsim    43, 170, 180
Tell Deir ‘Alla    122
Tell Deir ‘Alla Inscription    158
Tell el-Dabʿa    137, 138
Tell el-Farʿah    179
Tell el-Maskhuta    138
Tell en-Nasbeh    170
Tell eṣ-Ṣafi    167
Tell es-Saidiyeh    122
Tell es-Sulṭân    148, 151
Tell Hariri (Mari)    84
Tell Mardikh (Ebla)    84, 124
Tell Muqqayyar (Ur)    118
Tell or Tall, definition    73
Tempest Stela    140
Temple    101, 118, 140, 156, 159, 162, 164, 165, 166, 180, 181, 185, 186, 197, 206, 207, 208, 215, 227, 233, 236, 237, 239, 249
temple altars    274
temple balustrade or soreg    207
temple court    207
Temple Mount    181, 206, 207
Temple Mount Salvage Operation    180, 195
Temple Mount Sifting Project    180
Temple of Artemis    223
Temple of Augustus    242, 274
Temple of Pergamum    243
Temple of Roma    239
Temple of Sebastoi    232
Temple of Trajan    240
Temple of Zeus    242
temple warden, neokoros    233, 234, 237
temple(s)    233, 237, 241, 242, 243, 248, 249, 275, 276, 280
Temple, destruction    44, 90, 207
Ten Commandments    96, 144
tenth century BC    162, 165, 166, 169, 171, 175, 181
tephrachronology    49
Tepper, Yotam    220
Terah    92, 118
teraphim    120, 121
terracotta    43, 167, 250, 251, 281, 292
Tertullian    226
tessera    292
Testament of Judah    245
Testament of Levi    245, 271, 274
Testimonia    89
Tetradrachm coin of Smyrna    239
tetragrammaton    89, 90, 292
Tetrarch    187, 292
textiles    245, 247, 250, 251
textual criticism    105
Textus Receptus    89, 106
Thebes    138
Theodoret    199
Theodosius    194
Theodotus inscription    206
theology    215
Thera    49, 140
thermae    195
thermal springs    194, 195
thermoluminescence dating    49
Thessalonica    211, 214
Thiele, Edwin R.    47, 53
third millennium BC    48, 107, 108
Thomsen, Christian Jürgensen    52
throne of Satan    231
Throne of Solomon    112
Thucydides    34, 295
Thutmosis III    145, 154
Thutmosis IV    139
Thyatira    211, 224, 230, 235, 243, 244, 245, 277
Tiberias, city of    91, 192
Tiberius, Emperor    51, 239, 247, 248
Tiglathpileser    158
Tigris River    38
Tischendorf, Constantine von    82, 105
Titus, Emperor    233, 234
tolerance    65, 66
Tomb of Jonah    60
tomb of Mereruka, Saqqara    95
tomb of Paul    221
tomb of Simeon    186
tomb of Zacharias    186
tomb(s)     37, 118, 119, 127, 135, 139, 142, 146, 151, 200, 201, 202, 203, 222
Tosefta    91
Total Station    56
Tower of Babel    116, 117, 118, 293
tradition    222, 225, 227, 235, 274
Trajan, Emperor    224, 225, 234, 242
trinitite    131, 132, 292
Troas    241, 268
Trophimus    217
trowel    77, 78
Troy    71, 72
Trumpeting Inscription    208
Tübingen school    224, 227, 277
Tulaylat al-Ghassul    130
Turks    54
Tutankhamun    53
Tyrannus Inscription    208
Tyre    217

U

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Ugaritic    83, 85, 92, 287, 292
Umayyad    195, 263, 292
uncial    82, 100, 105, 293
United Monarchy      55, 61, 109, 162, 163, 164, 167, 173, 174, 181
University of Chicago    44, 47, 48, 49, 87, 109
University of Pennsylvania    118
Ur          65, 68, 72, 92, 107, 108, 117, 118, 119, 262, 282
Urartu    112
Uspenski Gospels    100
Ussishkin, David    162
Ut-Napishtim    115, 116

V

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Vassal Treaties    230
vellum    99, 290, 293
Venus    245, 277
Verulamium    75
Vespasian    189, 233, 234, 248
Vespasian-Titus Inscription    208
Victorinus of Pettau    225
volcanic glass (obsidian)    132
volcano    49, 112, 113, 124, 131, 248, 286
volunteer    55, 56, 77, 180
votive    293
Vulgate    286

W

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wadi    75, 293
Waqf    180, 293
Warren, Charles    40
Warren’s Gate    206
weapon(s)    35, 56, 119, 167
Weld-Blundell Prism    107, 109
Westcott and Hort    106
Western Wall    205
wheelbarrow    78
Wheeler, Mortimer    75
Wheeler-Kenyon method    56, 75, 77
Wilderness of Zin Survey    54
Wilson, Charles William    40
Wilson’s Arch    206
Winckler, Hugo    57
Witherington, Ben    199, 202, 204, 206
Wood, Bryant G.    53, 129, 144, 145, 150, 154, 282
Wood, J. T.    237
Woolley, C. Leonard    54, 68, 107, 118, 119
Wright, G. Ernest    76
Wyatt, Ron    112

X

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Xenophon    248
Xerxes    98, 161

Y

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Yadin, Yigael     56, 59, 76, 88, 91, 99, 126, 147, 156, 177, 203
Yahweh and his wife    59
Yahweh, YHWH    59, 84, 89, 115, 141, 147, 160, 244, 278, 292
Yamauchi, Edwin M.      33, 44, 50, 51, 58, 59, 60, 63, 70, 71, 105, 137, 209, 239, 250
Yurco, Frank    135, 141, 142

Z

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Zacharias    186
Zarethan    122
Zealot    88
Zeboim    121
Zechariah    186
Zedekiah    166
Zeus    242, 272, 274, 275, 276, 277
Zeuxis    251
ziggurat    84, 117, 118, 293
Ziusudra    107
Ziusudra Epic    114, 116
Zoar    121, 126, 132, 134
zodiac    245
zooarchaeology    56
zoology    67, 76
Zuckerman, Sharon    156